CONQUEST OF MEXICO: CAUSES, STAGES, CONSEQUENCES AND CHARACTERS - HISTORY - 2025

The conquest of Mexico or the conquest of Tenochtitlán was the historical episode through which the Spanish crown subdued the Aztec Empire and took control of its territories. This warlike confrontation lasted from 1519 to 1521, when the Spanish conquered the capital of the Mexica: Tenochtitlan.

At the head of the conquerors was Hernán Cortés, who had come from Cuba to the shores of the continent. After founding Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, Cortés entered the interior of present-day Mexico and managed to defeat various indigenous peoples on his way.

Episodes of the Conquest: The Cholula Massacre (oil on canvas) - Source: Félix Parra (1845-1919)

Historians usually divide the conquest into four different stages, which took place over a period of two years. Cortés and his men had the help of several towns in the area, eager to get rid of Aztec rule, on their march to Tenochtitlán. These alliances, together with arms superiority, allowed the Spanish to emerge victorious.

The first consequence was the disappearance of the Aztec Empire. The war and the epidemics that followed caused a great loss of life among the Mexica. Spain, for its part, continued its expansion throughout Mesoamerica until the formation of a viceroyalty.

Causes of the conquest

The main cause of the conquest of Mexico was the desire of the Spanish to control new territories. The crown of Castile was looking for new sources of income and, in addition, to expand the Catholic religion.

On the other hand, the defeat of the Aztecs was caused by various reasons, from military to psychological.

Psychological causes

While the Spaniards arrived in American lands highly motivated by their desire to conquer new territories for the crown, find gold and evangelize the indigenous people, the Aztecs faced the struggle with a different position.

The Mexica culture paid great attention to what its priests said and, at that time, the announced omens were not good. According to the chroniclers, Moctezuma himself was concerned about them.

On the other hand, during the confrontation the morale of the two contestants was very different. The Spanish had no problems with their military commands and Cortés was a very tenacious leader.

However, the Aztecs had to change rulers several times. Moctezuma's removal was a severe blow to them, and the death of his successor, Cuitláhuac, who had defeated the Spanish on the Noche Triste, only made the situation worse.

Economic causes

The empire of the Aztecs had based its economic prosperity on three pillars: agriculture, the tributes paid by the subject peoples, and trade. This became important when the Totonacs encountered the Spanish and complained about what they were obliged to pay the Mexica.

That complaint, shared by other peoples, was one of the reasons that allowed the Spanish to have indigenous allies in the war.

Alliances

The payment of tributes was not the only reason that led various indigenous peoples to ally themselves with the Spanish.

Although the Aztecs had conquered the peoples of the Valley of Mexico and the Yucatan, peace was never complete. Uprisings were frequent and Tenochtitlán was always seen as a conqueror.

Cortés took advantage of these circumstances to obtain the support of the enemies of the Aztecs. Among these, the Tlaxcalans and Totonacs stood out, who wanted to get rid of Mexica rule.

European weapons and strategies

Despite the alliances made by the Spanish, the Aztec numerical superiority was very remarkable. The conquerors, however, had much more advanced weapons that managed to counter the greater number of Mexican soldiers.

The latter still had weapons made of stone, wood or bone. Furthermore, they preferred to capture their enemies alive for use in human sacrifice.

The Spaniards, for their part, used weapons made of steel, crossbows and, most importantly, firearms such as arquebuses. Despite the slowness of using the latter, the fear they caused was enough to destabilize their enemies. In addition, the use of the horse was an important factor to gain advantage in battles.

Stages and characteristics

Hernán Cortés reached the island of Hispaniola in 1504. He lived there for a few years, until he accompanied Diego de Velázquez to conquer Cuba in 1511. After the victory, he began to work for the governor.

The Spanish began sending expeditions to the coast to prepare for future military missions. Diego de Velázquez, governor of Cuba at that time, was in charge of organizing the first two on the coast of Mexico, in 1517 and 1518 respectively.

Although relations between Velázquez and Cortés were not very good, the conqueror managed to lead the next advance party. The target was the Yucatan coast. Already at that time, Cortés intended to find new territories and stop serving the governor of Cuba.

First stage

The first phase of the conquest of Mexico began at the moment in which Hernán Cortés left Cuba to go to the continental coasts. On February 18, 1519, the conqueror set out with eleven ships and 600 men.

Costés was accompanied by some of the men who would later have an important role in the conquest of Mexico, such as Pedro de Alvarado, Francisco de Montejo or Bernal Díaz.

The expedition reached the coasts of Yucatán, where it found Jerónimo de Aguilar and his men, members of one of the previous advance squads. De Aguilar and his followers, who had learned some local languages, joined Cortés's troops.

Moctezuma, who had received the news of the arrival of the Spaniards, sent Cortés several young indigenous women as a gift. Among them was the Malinche, whose later role in the conquest was very important.

Second stage

While Cortés advanced with his men, some important changes related to America were taking place in Spain.

The Crown was not capable of facing all the military expenses caused by the conquest, for which it had to enact a series of agreements called Capitulations. Thanks to these agreements, she obtained financing from individuals.

Cortés's expedition, for its part, had reached Tlaxcala. For the first time, the Spanish encountered strong resistance from the indigenous people. However, the superiority of European weapons turned the confrontation in their favor.

The Tlaxcalans, defeated, decided to sign an alliance with the Spanish. In this way they tried to get rid of Mexica dominance. His warriors joined Cortés's soldiers on their way to Tenochtitlán.

Before reaching its destination there was one of the bloodiest massacres of the conquest. More than 5,000 indigenous people were killed in Cholula, in what, for some historians, should have become a warning against any attempt at resistance.

After the so-called Matanza de Cholula, Cortés had a clear path to reach the capital of the empire.

Third stage

The Spanish and their indigenous allies reached the Valley of Mexico. In its first moment, Moctezuma received them as guests, in part because of the belief that they represented the god Quetzalcóatl.

The events made that reception was changing. On the Spanish side, Costés had to face some movements against him. His leadership was not accepted by all and he had to leave the valley to confront Pánfilo de Narváez, sent by the governor of Cuba to get rid of Cortés.

Pedro de Alvarado was appointed as the head of the men who stayed in the valley. Faced with the strategy of Cortés, more patient, Alvarado decided to attack the Aztecs while they were celebrating a religious ceremony, known as the Matanza del Templo Mayor.

When Cortés returned, victorious, he tried to appease the angry Mexica. However, he had no choice but to withdraw. The maneuver, in which he lost half of his troops, was known as the Sad Night.

Fourth stage

The last stage of the conquest meant the fall of Tenochtitlán, the end of the Aztec empire and, later, the expansion of the Spanish throughout all the interior territories of present-day Mexico.

The conquerors, after the Sad Night, needed a year to besiege Mexico - Tenochtitlán. The siege began on May 30, 1521 and the Spanish troops were accompanied by their Tlaxcala allies.

At the head of the Mexica was Cuauhtémoc, who had replaced Moctezuma and Cuitláhuac. Despite the resistance they presented, the technical superiority of the Spanish weapons ended up deciding the battle. On August 13, 1521, Tenochtitlán surrendered.

Consequences of the conquest

When the Spanish arrived in the area, Tenochtitlán was a large city of 200,000 inhabitants. The Aztecs dominated a territory that had a population of approximately five million people.

With the fall of Tenochtitlán, the empire disappeared, although its government structures were maintained for a time.

The rule of Spain begins

Map of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (1794). Shadowxfox, from Wikimedia Commons

The Aztec Empire was replaced by the Spanish. After defeating Tenochtitlán, the Spanish continued with their military campaigns until they had under their control all the lands that, later, would form part of the viceroyalty of New Spain.

Colonization caused the disappearance of many indigenous cultures. The Spanish language began to impose itself on the autochthonous languages, as happened with Catholicism against the beliefs of the native peoples.

Creation of a political-administrative unit led by Spain

The viceroyalty was organized under the same government and the same laws, being structured as follows:

- The King: he was seen as the supreme authority. Absolute power was concentrated in the crown, royal authority had no legal limits and constituted the supreme law.

- The Council of the Indies: it was the highest-ranking authority, after the King and was appointed by him. The decisions, sentences, laws and agreements of the Council, represented the will of the King and, like him, he ruled from Spain.

- The audience: ruled not only in the political and administrative, but also constituted as a higher court to deal with civil and criminal matters.

- The Viceroy: represented the king in the colonies. Its powers and faculties were very broad and it was the supreme local authority.

- The visitors: they were envoys of the King, who came to the colonies when there were riots that disturbed the tranquility and public order or when there were suspicions of financial mismanagement.

- The municipalities: as cities and towns were granted a certain independence, they had employees who served as legal and administrative representatives. The city councils were of local origin and represented and defended the interests of the settlers.

Great mortality of indigenous populations

Armed clashes between the Spanish and the Aztecs caused a significant number of deaths. However, the main cause of death after the arrival of the conquerors was something else.

Thus, the most important cause that explains the great mortality that occurred among indigenous populations was diseases brought from Europe.

Miscegenation

Representation of the mestizos at the end of the 18th century or the beginning of the 19th century - Source: Unknown author -Collection of Malu and Alejandra Escandón, public domain

After the Spanish conquest, miscegenation became a reality throughout the area. In most cases, the mixture between Europeans and indigenous people occurred through rapes or relations with servants, something that grew with the arrival of more settlers from the peninsula.

The aforementioned demographic decline of the indigenous people ended up causing the arrival of African slaves, who also contributed their dose of mixture to the population.

New income for Spain

The dominions of Felipe II in 1598. Source: Trasamundo. The discovery of deposits in northern Mexico gradually allowed New Spain to occupy a privileged position. Mining allowed the exploitation of other activities such as agriculture and mills.

Establishment of trade routes

New Spain exported to Spain, through the ports of Veracruz and Acapulco, gold, silver, sugar and skins. Similarly, it made exports to China and the East Indies.

Introduction of new crops

Wheat, rice, sugar cane, lentils, onions, etc. were introduced.

In addition, new species of animals not known to the natives were introduced: cattle, horses, sheep, etc. They also introduced European agricultural practices.

Language

Before the arrival of the conquerors to Mexico, there was a great diversity of indigenous ethnic groups, very different from each other and with different languages. Not only were they different in terms of their culture, such as clothing, housing, and cuisine, but for something much more obvious, such as language.

Although Mexico continues to preserve a large part of its ancestral indigenous languages, one of the signs of the conquest has been the implantation of the Spanish language as the only language in the conquered territories.

Religion

The religion of the Aztecs was polytheistic; it was believed in the existence of multiple gods. After the arrival of the Spanish, they imposed Christianity.

The pyramids of Tenochtitlán were destroyed, and on the base of the main temple (where the Zócalo de México is today), a great Cathedral was built as a symbol of the triumph of Christianity.

Despite the imposition of the Christian faith on indigenous peoples, they had no qualms about mixing aspects of their pre-Hispanic religions with the recently “acquired” religion.

Technological, educational and social advance

Education in New Spain. Source: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Although the conquest was an event loaded with much violence and destruction on the part of the conquerors, it also brought to America many benefits, political, social, economic and cultural.

The Aztec Empire was in what can be considered "prehistory"; Although the Aztecs and other cultures had developed knowledge of agriculture or astronomy, technological advance was scarce. The arrival of the Spanish meant the arrival of technological, educational and social advances that existed in Europe.

A European-style educational system was created, which displaced the Aztec system. The Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico was founded (September 21, 1551), predecessor of the current Autonomous University of Mexico (UAM).

Prominent figures

Many were those who participated in the conquest of Mexico, both among the Spanish conquerors and among the Aztec defenders. Some of the most important were Hernán Cortés, Moctezuma II, Pedro de Alvarado or Cuauhtémoc.

Hernan Cortes

Hernán Cortés Monroy Pizarro Altamirano was born in Medellín, Corona de Castilla, in 1484. Cortés first traveled to America in 1504. His destination was the island of Hispaniola, where he worked as a notary public and became a landowner.

A few years later, in 1511, Cortés was part of the expedition sent to conquer Cuba. In 1518, Diego Velázquez, governor of the island, put him in command of an expedition that was to reach the coasts of the Yucatán.

After reaching Yucatán, Cortés founded Villa Rica de la Veracruz, on July 10, 1519. From that town he began his military campaign to conquer Aztec territory.

In August 1521, Tenochtitlán surrendered and Cortés was appointed governor and captain general of what was baptized as New Spain. During the following years, it continued expanding its dominions until controlling the Yucatan, Honduras and Guatemala.

However, Hernán Cortés always had enemies among the Spanish. These managed to have him removed from office and sent back to Spain in 1528. The conqueror was acquitted of the charges and was named Marquis of the Oaxaca Valley. Despite this, he was unable to maintain his duties as governor.

In 1530 he returned to Mexico and led some new expeditions of conquest. Eleven years later, he returned permanently to the peninsula, specifically to a town near Seville, Castilleja de la Cuesta. There he died in 1547.

Cuauhtémoc

Cuauhtémoc, a name that means "falling eagle", was the last defender of Tenochtitlán, the city where he was born in 1496.

As the son of a king, Ahuízotl, Cuauhtémoc received an aristocratic education, although he was not destined to rule. However, the massacre perpetrated by Pedro de Alvarado in May 1520, caused his people to destroy Emperor Moctezuma II. His successor, Cuitláhuac, managed to defeat the Spanish on the Noche Triste, but died shortly after.

Faced with this, Cuauhtémoc had to assume command supported by the nobles of the city who saw their military experience as the last possibility of resisting.

The new emperor tried to enlist the support of some of the indigenous peoples of the valley, without success. The empire's weakness was evident and Cuauhtémoc could only order new fortifications to be built to better defend Tenochtitlán. His measures were not enough and, after three months of siege, the city was conquered.

The Spanish took Cuauhtémoc prisoner on August 13, 1521. From that moment on, he was held and tortured to tell him where the royal treasure was.

Fearing a rebellion, Cortés forced him to accompany him on a military expedition to Honduras. During that campaign, he was accused of leading a conspiracy. The Spanish condemned him to die by hanging.

Moctezuma II

The son of the emperor Axayácatl came to the throne in 1502, when he replaced his uncle Ahuitzotl. Moctezuma II received the news of the arrival of the Spanish in 1518 and sent gifts to the newcomers. Many historians affirm that the governor thought that they were envoys of Quetzalcóatl, whose return had been prophesied.

When Cortés reached the coasts of the Yucatán, Moctezuma sent him presents again and, in November 1519, received him in the capital, Tenochtitlán. However, the Spanish reacted by betraying the emperor and took him prisoner.

In June 1520, during the Tóxcatl celebration, Pedro de Alvarado caused a great massacre among the Aztecs, who, unarmed, were in the town square.

The reaction of the people and the nobles was directed not only against the Spanish, but also against Moctezuma, whom they accused of having been too obsequious with the conquerors. Thus, the emperor was stoned and deposed. The throne was occupied by his brother, Cuitláhuac, who forced the Spanish to flee.

Pedro de Alvarado

Pedro de Alvarado was born in Badajoz in 1485. He was one of the members of the military expedition that conquered Cuba and, after that, he enlisted with Cortés on his mission to the coasts of Yucatán.

Accompanying Cortés, Alvarado arrived in Tenochtitlán in November 1519. There they were received in a friendly manner by Moctezuma II, whom they betrayed by taking him prisoner.

Hernán Cortés had to leave the area to face Pánfilo de Narváez, who wanted to remove him from command. Pedro de Alvarado was chosen to be in command of the troops that remained in Tenochtitlán.

Some sources affirm that Alvarado feared an Aztec insurrection, while others attribute his actions to the desire to conquer the city as soon as possible. The fact is that the Spanish took advantage of the Tóxcatl celebration to attack the unarmed Aztecs, causing a massacre.

When Cortés returned, he ordered to leave the city, fearful of the reaction of the Mexica. The retreat, which was intended to be stealthy, was discovered and the Aztecs attacked them and killed half of their troops.

After having conquered Mexico, Alvarado set sail for Central America in command of an army. In 1523, he seized Guatemala, and the following year, he did the same with El Salvador.

In those lands he remained until 1527, when he returned to Spain to be appointed governor of Guatemala by the king.

References

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4. Hudson, Myles. Battle of Tenochtitlán. Retrieved from britannica.com
5. History.com Editors. Aztec capital falls to Cortés. Retrieved from history.com
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