MEDITERRANEAN FOREST: CHARACTERISTICS, FLORA, FAUNA, RELIEF - ENVIRONMENT - 2025

The Mediterranean forest is a biome dominated by the tree biotype that develops in Mediterranean climate conditions. This climate is characterized by mild and rainy winters, dry summers (hot or temperate), warm autumns, and variable springs.

Mediterranean ecosystems are home to approximately 10% of the world's flora. The plants that inhabit these forests are subjected to stress generated by hot, dry summers and forest fires.

Mediterranean forest in Spain. Source: Eleagnus ~ commonswiki

Many plant species develop different adaptations such as thick cork barks and stiff leaves (sclerophyllous plants).

There are 5 areas of the planet with a Mediterranean climate which are the Mediterranean Sea basin, California (USA), Chile, South Africa and Australia. However, in South Africa there is no forest formation, only that of bush (fynbos).

Different types of forest are found in the Mediterranean basin from low and medium Mediterranean forests to tall forests. In some types of forests the angiosperms dominate, in other gymnosperms and there are also mixed.

In California the Mediterranean forest is the chaparral and coniferous forests in deep valleys. The chaparral has a low canopy up to 6-10 m high and an understory of herbs and shrubs.

In the southern hemisphere, the Chilean Mediterranean forest includes the so-called scrub, as well as sclerophyllous forests of different developments. Shrubs and a low forest with a canopy of 6 to 15 m and shrubby understory dominate this region.

The Mediterranean forests of Australia have a predominance of trees and shrubs of the genus Eucalyptus.

These Mediterranean ecosystems occur in very varied reliefs, from flat to mountainous. They are found in coastal plains, valleys, plateaus and mountains up to 1,000 meters above sea level.

In the Mediterranean forests of the northern hemisphere the dominant species are of the genus Quercus and in those of conifers, Pinus and Juniperus species predominate.

In the eastern Mediterranean, the Lebanese cedar is emblematic, while in the Australian forests the eucalyptus trees dominate. Labiatae and ericaceous herbs and shrubs such as rosemary, myrtle, heather and rosemary are abundant in the understory.

The fauna that inhabits the Mediterranean regions is very varied and in the Mediterranean basin there are the fox, the Iberian lynx, the red squirrel and the wild boar. Likewise, species of songbirds, cranes and storks are abundant.

In the Californian scrub the coyote and the Californian hare occur and in the Chilean the coypu or false otter, the degu and the culpeo fox. In the Australian Mediterranean region, marsupials such as the numbat, the chudchit and the woylie or long-tailed rat kangaroo predominate.

The Mediterranean climate is characterized by the fact that the rains are distributed mainly in winter, spring and autumn. Average annual rainfall is between 350 and 900 mm per year (in Australia up to 1,500 mm). Regarding temperature, the annual average ranges are between 13 and 19 ºC and a monthly average never lower than 10 ºC.

General characteristics

The fundamental limitation in the Mediterranean climate are long, hot and dry summers and fire. Therefore, many plants have sclerophyllous leaves (rigid, with abundant mechanical tissue).

- The fire

Mediterranean vegetation is associated with the influence of forest fires that occur periodically naturally or by human action. Its effects are varied and the object of multiple investigations and it has been indicated that in some species it facilitates germination.

Adaptations

Some adaptations of plants to fire are the presence of thick suberified bark (cork), underground propagation structures and hard leaves. An example of this is the cork oak (Quercus suber) from whose bark the natural cork is extracted.

- Plant structure

The Mediterranean forest is formed by an arboreal layer that ranges from 6 m to 70 m in height depending on the geographical area. The lowest canopy is in the Chilean scrub, being highest in the forests of the eastern Mediterranean basin.

The tallest trees are found in the deep valley forests of California, with the species Sequoia sempervirens (up to 70 m).

In the western Mediterranean the canopy tends to be intermediate, and can reach 6 to 15 m. While in the Chilean scrub region it can reach up to 30 m in areas of higher humidity.

Lower stratum and understory

In most Mediterranean forests there is a single tree stratum and an understory of herbs and shrubs. Epiphytism does not occur and there are some climbing plants such as sarsaparilla (Smilax aspera) and ivy (Hedera helix).

Forest composition

These plant formations can be angiosperm, gymnosperm or mixed forests. In the first case, the Quercus forests are found, while a representative of the gymnosperm forests are those of Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani).

Among mixed Mediterranean forests, those with Quercus species (angiosperm) and Pinus species (gymnosperm) are common.

- Floor

In general, the soils are of low fertility although they reach better conditions in some more humid valleys. In areas of the Mediterranean basin the soils are deep and fertile, especially where there were forests of wild olive trees and carob trees.

The texture is variable, and Mediterranean forests can form on soils ranging from sandy loam to clay. Soil depth is also variable, with deeper soils found in plains and less in steep ones.

Types of Mediterranean forests

- Forests of the Mediterranean basin (European side)

The Mediterranean Sea basin presents an important variety of forests, although the vast majority have a high degree of human intervention. This is due to the thousands of years of human activity in these lands.

Some Mediterranean forests have been transformed into semi-natural systems, subjected to anthropic management. An example are the meadows of Spain and montados of Portugal, which are forests of holm oaks (Quercus ilex) and cork oaks (Quercus suber).

These forests have historically been managed for cattle raising by clearing them (removing some trees and shrubs). In this way, the entry of light is facilitated for the development of pastures and it has been transformed into an agrosilvopastoral system.

To the east of the Iberian peninsula there are mixed forests such as the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) forest. In the eastern Mediterranean there are forests dominated by gymnosperms such as the Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani).

- Forests of the Mediterranean basin (African slope)

On the African coast, the variety of substrates and local climates generates various types of Mediterranean forests. There are holm oak forests, cork oak forests, carob forests (Ceratonia siliqua) and wild olive trees.

Another case is the forests of thuya berberisca (Tetraclinis articulata), a conifer endemic to North Africa from which the amber-like sandáraca resin is extracted.

- Californian Mediterranean forests

Californian chaparral in Los Padres National Park (United States). Source: Taken by Antandrus

The most widespread is the chaparral, which is a forest of small trees and tall shrubs. Chaparral is called as a reference to oak that has a low biotype and with many branches.

This plant formation has an arboreal layer no higher than 10 m in height and a variable understory of herbs and shrubs. In addition to the oak species, there is the encinillo (Quercus berberidifolia) of shrub biotype.

In the deep and rainy valleys of this area, there are coniferous forests of the species Sequoia sempervirens.

- Chilean Mediterranean forests

The Chilean scrub constitutes a 100 km wide strip that extends along the central part of the Chilean coast. It consists of shrubs and a low sclerophyllous forest, with a canopy of between 6 and 15 m and a shrubby understory.

In the region there are also patches of forests with species that reach heights of up to 30 m.

- Australian Mediterranean Forest

In some areas a forest itself develops (predominantly tree biotype), made up of various species of Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other genera.

However, an intermediate vegetation formation between a forest and a tall shrubland called mallee predominates, where eucalyptus species predominate. The term mallee refers to plants that branch basally, but that reach heights from 4 m to 10 m.

In some cases there are large eucalyptus forests, such as those made up of the karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) up to 70 m high. Likewise, there are the jarrah forests that have a canopy of up to 40 m with a predominance of Eucalyptus marginata.

Anthropic impact

Mediterranean Sea Basin

The forests of the Mediterranean Sea basin have a high degree of intervention by human activities. The areas transformed into pastures have preserved some elements of the original forest and others have been converted into farmland.

Agrosilvopastoral system in the Spanish pasture. Source: No machine-readable author provided. Curiosity ~ commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).

Other activities that have had a negative impact are urban planning and the construction of tourist infrastructure.

Chilean scrub

The Chilean scrubland has been severely affected by fires, mining, logging, landfills, urbanization, and air, water and soil pollution.

Location

Only 5 regions of the world experience Mediterranean climate which takes its name from the Mediterranean Sea basin. The other areas are south-central and south-western Australia, the southern African fynbos, the Chilean scrubland, and the Mediterranean region of California.

Forests occur only in 4 of these regions which are the Mediterranean Sea basin, California, Chile and Australia. The South African fynbos is a plant formation of low shrubs and grasses.

Mediterranean Sea Basin

The Mediterranean forest extends discontinuously along the coast of the European slope, from the Iberian Peninsula to the Middle East. On the African side it reaches its greatest development on the west coast, especially in Morocco with some enclaves in Tunisia and the Cyrenaica region.

In this region, the Mediterranean climate extends into the Caucasus to Afghanistan and central Asia.

America

In North America, Mediterranean forests are found on the Pacific coast south of California (United States) and in Baja California (Mexico). While in South America they are located in the central zone of Chile, on the Pacific coast.

Australia

Here Mediterranean forests develop in the extreme southeast and in the extreme southwest.

Relief

The Mediterranean forest develops in flat reliefs, slightly steep to mountainous. From coastal plains, through valleys and plateaus to elevations of 1,500 meters above sea level.

Flora

- Forest of the Mediterranean basin

Western Mediterranean (European slope)

Oak (Quercus coccifer)

In Mediterranean forests, Quercus species predominate, such as holm oak (Quercus ilex) and oak (Quercus coccifer). Likewise, the cork oak (Quercus suber) and the holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia) are present.

The holm oak is the most characteristic species of the western Mediterranean and the most widespread in the Iberian Peninsula. Other species are legumes such as the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), and anacardiaceae such as the mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) and the turpentine or cornicabra (Pistacia terebinthus).

The cork oak forests of the Iberian Peninsula are the most extensive in the Mediterranean and are distributed from the coast up to 1,500 meters above sea level. Other tree species such as laurel (Laurus nobilis), Ilex aquifolium and Myrtus communis grow on these.

Western Mediterranean (African slope)

Pines (Pinus halepensis)

On the African coast there are Quercus species that inhabit the European coast (Q. suber, Q. ilex, Q. coccifer) and wild olive trees (Olea Europea, Olea maroccana). Other trees of importance are thuya berberisca (Tetraclinis articulata) and turpentine (Pistacia terebinthus).

Pinus halepensis pine forests constitute the southernmost type of Mediterranean forest. They extend over more than 10,000 km² in North Africa (8,550 km² in Algeria, 2,965 km² in Tunisia and 650 km² in Morocco).

Eastern mediterranean

Maple (Acer hyrcanum)

In the Mediterranean climate zones, the Cedrus libani predominates and in the continental climate regions, the Pinus nigra is found. In the forests dominated by the cedar of Lebanon there are other species such as Abies cilicica, Juniperus foetidissima and the eastern turpentine (Pistacia palaestina).

Among the angiosperms are oaks (Quercus cerris, Q. libani, Q. trojana, Q. petraea, Q. macrolepis). Another group of representative trees are the maples (Acer hyrcanum, A. platonoides, A. campestre and A. monspessulanum).

Understory

Heather (Erica arborea)

In the understory, there are herbs and shrubs, with species such as rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and rosemary (Cistus albidus). A typical shrub of the Mediterranean forest is also boxwood (Buxus sempervirens).

Other shrubs of holm oak and oak forests are the myrtle (Myrtus communis), the mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) and the white heather (Erica arborea). Also inhabits these forests one of the only two species of European palm, the palm heart (Chamaerops humilis).

Among the herbs are the globularia (Globularia alypum), with large bluish globe-shaped flowers, and the jarilla species (Helianthemum spp). There are also some climbing plants such as sarsaparilla (Smilax aspera), ivy (Hedera helix) and Rubia peregrina.

- Californian Mediterranean forests

Oaks Forest. Source: Siurle

The most representative is the chaparral with species of low trees and tall shrubs such as Quercus agrifolia, Quercus dumosa and Quercus wislizeni. Likewise, you can find Adenostoma sparsifolium and almost 60 species of the genus Arctostaphylos (manzanitas)

Other species such as Malosma laurina (3-5 m high) and Rhamnus californica (2-5 m) are found in these oak forests.

Biotypic variability

The variability of the biotype of many of these species is high, as is the case with Cercocarpus betuloides. This rosacea that can be a small bush of 1 m to a small tree of 9 m in height depending on the environmental conditions where it develops.

- Chilean Mediterranean forests

There is a great abundance of endemic species (95%) that have affinities with the tropics, Antarctica and the Andes.

Scrub

The scrub itself is a low forest combined with a shrub, 4-8 m high, with semi-arid characteristics. Various species of cacti grow in it (eg, Echinopsis chiloensis), legumes and other groups typical of dry areas.

In the Chilean scrub there are several threatened plant species and some in danger of extinction such as Adiantum gertrudis, Avellanita bustillosii and Beilschmiedia berteroana.

Sclerophyllous forest

This is the home of the Chilean carob (Prosopis chilensis), the liter (Lithrea caustica), the hawthorn (Acacia caven) and the maitén (Maytenus boaria). There are also bushes such as colliguay (Colliguaja odorifera) and retamilla (Retanilla ephedra).

In the undergrowth, the arrosetata herbs of Andean origin stand out, such as the puya (Puya berteroniana) and the cardón (Puya chilensis).

Tall forests

In some more humid areas of the Chilean scrub ecoregion there are patches of forests that reach higher canopy height. A representative species is the queule or hualhual (Gomortega keule), an aromatic evergreen tree of up to 15 m and edible fruits.

Forest with Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis). Source: Scott Zona from Miami, Florida, USA

Similarly, you can get the pitao (Pitavia punctata), an evergreen tree of 15 m and the ruil (Nothofagus alessandrii) that is deciduous and reaches up to 30 m in height. Palm groves of the Chilean palm or can-can (Jubaea chilensis), up to 30 m with edible fruits, also grow.

- Australian Mediterranean Forest

Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae)

The forests of the Australian Mediterranean area are dominated by species of the genus Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae). Among them are the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), the marri (Eucalyptus calophylla) and the wandoo (Eucalyptus wandoo).

Species such as Eucalyptus albopurpurea, E. angustissim a, E. socialis and E. dumosa are found in the mallee.

Fauna

- Forest of the Mediterranean basin

Western Mediterranean (European slope)

Among the birds there are pigeons such as the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) and raptors such as the goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) and scops owl (Otus scops). Other characteristic birds are woodpeckers like Dendrocopos major.

Mediterranean forests are important winter enclaves for thousands of cranes (Grus grus). They are also breeding grounds for hundreds of white storks (Ciconia ciconia) and the endangered black stork (Ciconia nigra).

Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Source: Fernando Diz

Mammals include the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and the fox (Vulpes vulpes). Likewise, the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) and the wild boar (Sus scrofa) inhabit these areas.

Western Mediterranean (African slope)

On the African slope, the common jackal (Canis aureus), the caracal (Caracal caracal) and the polecat ferret (Mustela putorius) grow. Other species are Barbary leopards (Panthera pardus panthera), Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus), and Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia).

Eastern mediterranean

Carnivores such as the brown bear (Ursus arctos) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus), the lynx (Lynx lynx) and the caracal (Caracal caracal) inhabit this region. The Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus subsp. Tulliana), which is a critically endangered species.

Among the herbivorous mammals, the wild goat (Capra aegagrus) and the fallow deer (Dama dama) stand out.

- Californian Mediterranean forests

Gray Wolf (Canis lupus)

The California hare (Lepus californicus), the coyote (Canis latrans) and the mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) live in these ecosystems.

The gray wolf (Canis lupus) was characteristic of the area, but it disappeared mainly due to hunting. A few years ago a young male was sighted in the Californian Chaparral region, which could indicate a possible recolonization.

- Chilean Mediterranean forests

Thrush (Turdus falcklandii)

In these areas there is a great diversity of birds such as the thrush (Turdus falcklandii), the queltehue (Vanellus chilensis) and the loica (Sturnella loyca). Likewise, the black-necked swan (Cygnus melancoryphus), the tagua (Fulica armillata) and owls such as the small (Athene cunicularia).

Among the mammals are the nutria or false nutria (Myocastor coypus), the degu (Octodon degus) and the culpeo fox (Lycalopex culpaeus). While among the lizards the weeping lizard (Liolaemus chiliensis) endemic to Chile and Argentina stands out.

- Australian Mediterranean Forest

Numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus)

The Australian fauna in general is very particular and the same happens with the Mediterranean forest of this region of the planet. There are several species of marsupials such as the numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus) that feed on termites and the chudchit (Dasyurus geoffroii).

Other marsupials that inhabit these forests are the woylie or long-tailed rat kangaroo (Bettongia penicillata) and the pygmy opossum (Cercartetus concinnus).

Weather

It is a climate with cool or mild winters, dry summers (hot or temperate), warm autumns, and variable springs. Mediterranean climate regions generally occur in the western part of the continents, where they are influenced by cold ocean currents.

There are two unfavorable periods a year which are winter and hot and dry summer.

In the western Mediterranean there are annual average temperatures that range between 13 ° C and 19 ° C, and the average minimum temperature ranges between 1 ° C and 10 ° C. In the extreme west, the influence of cold currents from the high seas tends to further moderate temperatures.

The precipitations are distributed in autumn, winter and spring, varying in the different regions of Mediterranean climate. In the African Mediterranean the average annual rainfall is between 350 and 800 mm and on the Iberian coast between 450 and 900 mm.

On the other hand, in the Australian Mediterranean forests the precipitation ranges from 635 mm to 1,500 mm per year.

References

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