SPEECH ACTS: TYPES AND EXAMPLES - LITERATURE - 2024

The acts of speech are statements, statements or statements which serve to the speaker, beyond declaring something, take an action. These are usually sentences in the first person and in the present tense, such as "why don't you do it!", "If you tell it, I'm not talking to you" and "I'm sorry for your loss", which can represent a challenge, a threat and a condolence, respectively.

Speech act theories were developed by JL Austin in 1975. In his theory, Austin does not focus on the function of language to describe reality, represent states of affairs, or make statements about the world; instead, Austin analyzes the variety of uses of the language. This was his great contribution to contemporary philosophy.

This theory is related to the concept of illocutionary or illocutionary acts, introduced by Austin. It refers to the attitude or intention of the speaker when pronouncing a statement: when someone says, "I'm going to do it," their intention (or illocutionary act) may be to utter a threat, a warning, or a promise; interpretation depends on context.

Types

According to its general function

The American philosopher John Searle analyzed illocutionary acts and found that there are at least a dozen linguistically significant dimensions that differentiate them. Based on this, he made a taxonomy.

Assertive or representative

These types of acts commit the speaker to the truth of an expressed proposition. Some of the illocutionary acts are: affirm, suggest, declare, present, swear, describe, boast and conclude.

Example

"There is no better cook than me."

Directors

Directing speech acts seek an action from the recipient. Among others, illocutionary acts are: ordering, requesting, challenging, inviting, advising, begging, and pleading.

Example

"Would you be so kind as to pass me the salt?"

Commissive

These acts commit the speaker to do something in the future. The different types are: promises, threats, vows, offerings, plans and bets.

Example

"I won't let you do that."

Expressive

These types of acts express how the speaker feels about the situation or show a psychological state. Within these are: thanks, apologies, welcomes, complaints and congratulations.

Example

"I'm really sorry I said that."

Declarations

Speech acts classified as statements change or affect a situation or state immediately.

Example

"I now pronounce you husband and wife".

According to its structure

In addition to distinguishing speech acts according to their general function (giving an order, asking permission, inviting), these can also be distinguished with respect to their structure.

In this sense, Austin argued that what is said (locutionary act) does not determine the illocutionary act that is performed. Therefore, speech acts can be direct or indirect.

Direct speech acts

Generally, direct speech acts are performed using performative verbs. This class of verbs explicitly convey the intention of the statement. Among others, they include: promise, invite, excuse and predict.

Sometimes a performative verb is not used; however, the illocutionary force is perfectly clear. Thus, the expression "shut up!" in a given context it can clearly be an order.

Indirect speech acts

In indirect speech acts, on the other hand, illocutionary force does not manifest itself directly. Thus, inference must be used to understand the intention of the speaker.

For example, in a work context, if a boss says to his secretary: "Don't you think that that skirt is not appropriate for the office?", He is not really consulting her opinion, but ordering her not to wear that garment anymore.

Examples

Assertive or representative

- I suggest you go and apologize. (Suggestion, direct).

- Why don't you go and ask for forgiveness? (Hint, indirect).

- I conclude that this was the best decision. (Conclusion, direct).

- This was definitely the best decision. (Conclusion, indirect).

- I boast of being the best salesman in my company. (Boasting, direct).

- The best salesperson in the company is the one who makes the most sales, and I was the one who made the most sales! (Boasting, indirect).

Directors

- I beg you not to tell her anything yet. (Supplication, direct).

- Don't tell her anything yet, please. (Supplication, indirect).

- For our friendship, I ask you to reconsider your attitude. (Request, direct).

- For our friendship, can you reconsider your attitude? (Request, indirect).

- I invite you to visit my house next Saturday. (Invitation, direct).

- Come see my house next Saturday. (Invitation, indirect).

Commissive

- I promise I'll be there before nine. (Promise, direct).

- Easy, I'll be there before nine. (Promise, indirect).

- I assure you that if you don't come, I'll tell her everything. (Threat, direct).

- Well, you know how it is… I could tell her everything if you don't come. (Threat, indirect).

- I bet he won't have the guts to go to his parents. (Bet, direct).

- If you have the courage to present yourself to his parents, I invite you to lunch (Bet, indirect).

Expressive

- Sorry if I didn't take you into account. (Excuse me, direct).

- I know I should have taken you into account. (Excuse me, indirect).

- Congratulations on achieving this success. (Congratulations, direct).

- You must be very proud to have achieved this success. (Congratulations, indirect).

- I appreciate all the support provided in this terrible situation. (Thanks, direct).

- I do not know how to pay for all the support provided in this terrible situation. (Thanks, indirect).

Declarations

- By the confession of your mouth I now baptize you in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. (Baptism).

- By the power that the law confers on me, I now declare you husband and wife ». (Declaration of marriage).

- I close the session. (End of a session).

- I declare him innocent of all the charges against him. (Legal acquittal).

- From this moment on, I irrevocably resign. (Resignation).

References

1. Fromkin, V.; Rodman, R. and Hyams, N. (2013). An Introduction to Language. Boston: Cengage Learning.
2. Berdini, F. and Bianchi, C. (s / f). John Langshaw Austin (1911-1960). Taken from iep.utm.edu.
3. Nordquist, R. (2017, May 05). Illocutionary Act. Taken from thoughtco.com.
4. IT. (s / f). Realizations of Speech Acts. Direct and indirect speech acts. Taken from it.uos.of.
5. Tsovaltzi, D.; Walter, S. and Burchardt, A. (). Searle's Classification of Speech Acts. Taken from coli.uni-saarland.de.
6. Fotion, N. (2000). Searle. Teddington: Acumen.